What was the Cursus Honorum?
The cursus honorum (Latin:'course of honors') describes the ancient Roman system of political advancement. It was a sequence of offices, often thought of as a metaphorical ladder, that an individual could hold, with each office requiring greater experience, and affording a higher level of prestige.
The cursus honorum was not just a way to advance one's political career; it was also a way to gain experience in governance. By holding different offices of increasing scope and challenges, an individual could learn about different aspects of government and how to ultimately run a city, province or empire.
The cursus honorum was thus an important part of the training and development of Roman politicians and administrators.
What are the steps of the Cursus Honorum?
The cursus honorum began with the position of Quaestor, and ended with the Consulate. Between these two offices were the positions of Praetor and Aedile. Only those who had partaken in military service were eligible for election as a Quaestor, however.
The steps of the cursus honorum are listed below, from lowest position up to the highest office.
- Military Service (see below)
- Quaestor - Managed financial and administrative matters, such as the paymaster for a legion, or the supervision and overseeing of public games.
- Aedile - Responsible for certain tasks in the city of Rome, such as maintaining temples and other public buildings, organization of festivals and games, as well as looking after the water and food supply.
- Praetor - Served judicial functions throughout Rome, and had other governmental responsibilities. Their main functions being administration of civil law in Rome (Praetor Urbanus) and judges in courts of law (Praetor Peregrinus, created in 246 BC). After a term as Praetor, the individual would often serve as the governor of a Roman province, with the title of Propraetor.
- Consul - The Consul was the highest rung of the cursus honorum - at least, it was for many, with individuals such as Julius Caesar ultimately taking things a step further! Two were elected and held the position for one year only. They were the supreme commanders of the legions, and convened and presided over the Senate. Obviously, their powers were greatly diminished during the Imperial period when the emperor was the supreme ruler.
This mixture of military and public administration posts intentionally provided those who would make it all the way to the top of the ladder and become a Consul, with the necessary skills required to manage the important affairs of the entire Roman empire.
How Did a Person Get on the Political Ladder?
Certainly in the days of the Roman Republic, only those coming from respectable (and therefore, wealthy) families were considered for a career in politics. Not only this, but in order to be considered for election as a Quaestor, a candidate must have had at least 10 years of military experience.
Because of their status and wealth, this quite often meant serving in the Equites order, which was pretty much the Roman equivalent of a Middle Ages knight on horseback. Only the wealthy could afford their own horse and battle armor (unlike during the Imperial period when the Roman legions had their equipment provided by the state), and this group were originally defined by the value of their property.
In the Late Republic, the property threshold stood at 50,000 denarii, but this figure was doubled to 100,000 denarii by the emperor Augustus – roughly the equivalent to the annual salaries of 450 contemporary legionaries. The rank was passed from father to son provided, of course, that the family still had assets above the minimum amount required.
Another common route of entry was serving under a general who was a relative or friend of the family.
The Role of a Consul During the Imperial Period
As stated above, the ultimate goal for any individual with political aspirations was to be elected as one of the two Consuls for a particular year, for the power and prestige that came with holding such a high-ranking office.
During the Imperial period of Roman history, the position of Consul still existed, but it was largely ceremonial rather than having any real power, which was now in the hands of the emperor.
It became common for the emperor himself to hold the position of one of the two Consuls, with the other acting as more of an administrative assistant to the wishes of the emperor. This second Consul was still elected, but this was merely an exercise in keeping up the pretense of traditions of the past, as the candidate(s) were chosen by the emperor, so it was hardly a democratic election in any sense of the word.
Quite often, the emperor would choose to bestow the title of Consul on a particular senator if he wanted to honor him or reward his service/loyalty.
The Dictatorship
During the Republican period, there was in fact one step higher than a Consul, that of the Dictator.
In all positions of government, the Romans were acutely aware of not giving one man too much power, as had been the case during the time of the kings of Rome (which is ironic considering that they would one day be ruled by an emperor).
To this end, there were checks and vetos in place to prevent, at least in theory, any abuses of power. Not only were there defined term limits and minimum periods that had to elapse before standing for re-election to the same post, all members of each particular office grouping were of equal rank, and could veto an action that was taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of power. For example, a Consul could veto acts of lower magistrates such as Aediles.
The two Consuls themselves were also subjected to checks on their powers, which is understandable, as the amount of authority and control they had over many aspects of life and the direction of the empire, were significant.
Not only did they take turns in being responsible for such things as control of the army or the business of the Senate, but each one could also veto the orders of the other. This was in place to prevent one Consul having sole authority, as both would have to agree on a particular course of action to proceed, otherwise the other one could simply block it.
Of course, this power of veto and enabling time for further debate may work in peacetime or when matters are not urgent, but there would be times of crisis, or when speed and urgency were vital, when decisions had to be made quickly and decisively by one person, with little to no argument.
For such situations, the Senate could declare that a Dictator was needed. This position gave pretty much absolute power to one man for a period of six months, or shorter if the crisis had passed before the six months was up. Even the Consuls had to abide by the decisions of the Dictator.
Although not part of the cursus honorum, as it was hoped that there were never be a need for this position to be filled, the powers of a Dictator were greater than that of a Consul, and would only be surpassed during the Imperial period, when the emperor would have sole responsibilty in all matters of the state.
Did you know...
Under the empire, the consulship was often held for only two months; in this way, twelve senators could occupy the empire's highest office. (In the year 190 AD, there were no less than twenty-five consuls.)
Did you know...
A suffect consul was appointed or elected when the ordinary Consul for that year died.
Did you know...
The military tribunes (tribuni militum) were the senior officers of the legions, elected by the people and with the rank of magistrate.
Did you know...
Consuls and Proconsuls functioned as military commanders, provincial governors and curators of public works.
