Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud)
King: 534 - 509 BC
Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, more commonly known as Tarquin the Proud, was the legendary seventh and final king of ancient Rome. His reign, which lasted from c. 534 to 509 BC, was marked by tyranny and the expansion of Roman territory.
Tarquin belonged to the Etruscan Tarquinii clan, and has been accepted by some scholars as a historical figure, even if many aspects of his life and rule have been surrounded by myth and legend.
A drawing of a coin featuring the Roman king Lucius Tarquinius Superbus
Under Tarquin's rule, Rome experienced both growth and unrest. His oppressive measures and disregard for the rights of Roman citizens fueled dissatisfaction among the population. The tipping point came with the rape of the noblewoman Lucretia by Tarquin's son, Sextus Tarquinius, which ultimately ignited a popular uprising against the monarchy.
This event led to the establishment of the Roman Republic and marked the end of Tarquin's rule.
Early Life and Background
The early years of Tarquin are uncertain, but it is believed that he was the son, or possibly the grandson, of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of Rome. As a member of the Etruscan aristocracy, his upbringing in Rome exposed him to both Roman customs and Etruscan traditions. This combination would later play a role in his ambition for power and the expansion of Rome's influence during his reign.
In addition to his Etruscan heritage, Tarquin made strategic alliances through his marriages to Tullia Major, and then to her younger sister, Tullia Minor, who were the daughters of his predecessor, Servius Tullius. These connections further strengthened his claim to the Roman throne and would prove instrumental in his rise to power (see “Rise to Power” section below for more on this).
Before ascending to kingship, Tarquin was said to be a resident of the Latin city of Tusculum. Tusculum, which played a vital role in the Latin League, was one of Rome's early allies. Tarquin's connection to this powerful city could have helped him garner support from other influential Latin cities and potentially contributed to his eventual seizure of power in Rome.
There is no doubt that Lucius Tarquinius Superbus' ascent to the throne was marked by intrigue and usurpation. In 535 BC, he ousted King Servius Tullius by questioning the legitimacy of his rule, claiming that Servius had strayed from traditional practices by not being elected through the Curiate Assembly or following correct protocols during the period of interregnum.
N.B. "Interregnum" refers to a period when there is no king reigning. It's a Latin term that literally translates to "between reigns." In ancient Rome, during an interregnum, a temporary official known as an "interrex" would be appointed to facilitate the transition between the reigns of two kings. The interrex would hold office for a short period and would oversee the election of the new king.
This power grab marked the beginning of a reign that would be infamous for its tyrannical rule and, ultimately, led to the establishment of the Roman Republic.
Rise to Power
Lucius Tarquinius Superbus’ rise to power involved the strategic orchestration of a series of events, including a tumultuous relationship with his family.
As mentioned above, Tarquin was married to Tullia (Tullia Major), the daughter of King Servius Tullius, who was the sixth king of Rome at that time. Tarquin's brother, Arruns, was also married to a princess named Tullia (Tullia Minor), the king's other daughter. Unfortunately, Tarquin found himself more attracted to his brother's wife than his own.
Tarquin and Tullia Minor conspired together to increase their individual power and fulfill their ambitions. They orchestrated the assassination of Servius Tullius, Tullia's father, and then proceeded to eliminate any potential contenders to the throne, including Tarquin's brother, Arruns.
Upon assuming the throne, Tarquin proved to be a powerful and effective ruler, expanding Rome's territory. His reign was characterized by the implementation of strict and harsh measures, which earned him the title of "Tarquin the Proud." Despite his skill in military and territorial expansion, his authoritarian tactics and disdain for the Senate led to growing discontent among the Roman people.
As a result, Tarquin's reign ultimately came to an end with a popular uprising that led to the establishment of the Roman Republic. Although his methods were controversial, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus played a noteworthy role in shaping the trajectory of ancient Rome and its transition from a monarchy to a republic.
King Tarquin's Reign
At the time of his reign, Tarquin’s kingdom was one of the most powerful in Italy. Its capital had some 35,000 inhabitants, its territory was some 800 square kilometers, and its zone of influence stretched as far as Circeii and Terracina, 90 kilometers to the southeast. The Latin cities recognized Roman leadership, and Tarquin added several towns to his kingdom.
Infrastructure and Development
Tarquin's reign saw the undertaking of several significant construction and infrastructure projects in Rome. One of his most notable achievements was the completion of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill. This temple would become one of the most important religious sites in ancient Rome, and served as a symbol of the city's growing political and religious power.
Tarquin is believed to have expanded or completed the Cloaca Maxima, which translates to "Greatest Sewer," and is one of the world's earliest sewage systems which was constructed in ancient Rome.
The original construction of the Cloaca Maxima is attributed to King Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of Rome, who ruled from 616 - 579 BC. He initiated the project to drain the marshy areas between the hills of Rome, allowing for further urban development. By the time of Superbus, the Cloaca Maxima had become essential for the growing city of Rome, draining rainwater and wastewater into the Tiber River.
Tarquin also focused on improving the city's defenses and expanding its territory. He constructed a series of walls around Rome, designed to protect the city from foreign invaders. Additionally, he initiated a series of military campaigns to conquer neighboring city-states, solidifying Rome's dominance in the region.
Despite his oppressive rule, the infrastructure and development projects undertaken during Tarquin's reign laid the foundation for Rome's future growth and prosperity.
Rape of Lucretia and Its Consequences
The Rape of Lucretia is an event which went down in ancient Roman folklore. Lucretia, a noblewoman, was the wife of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, a great nephew of Tarquinius Priscus. Her tragic story began when she was raped by Sextus Tarquinius, the son of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. Sextus committed the act during a siege of Ardea, while Lucius Tarquinius Superbus and other key leaders were away from Rome.
Tarquinius and Lucretia by Titian (1571), a depiction of the rape of Lucretia by Sextus Tarquinius
After the horrific event, Lucretia summoned her father Spurius Lucretius, her husband Collatinus, and his friend Lucius Junius Brutus (an ancestor of Marcus Junius Brutus, one of the conspirators and murderers of Julius Caesar). She informed them about the rape and made them swear to exact vengeance upon the Tarquin family.
Shortly after, Lucretia took her own life, committing suicide due to the perceived dishonor brought upon her by the attack. Her death, rather than her silence, symbolized Roman matronly chastity and honor.
The consequences of the Rape of Lucretia were far-reaching and went beyond the personal lives of those involved. Lucretia's death fueled a significant uprising against the Tarquin family, led by Lucius Junius Brutus. As a result, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was deposed, and his family was exiled from Rome. This marked the end of the Roman monarchy and the beginning of the Roman Republic in 509 BC.
To consolidate their power, Brutus and Collatinus were elected as the first consuls of the new Roman Republic. The story of Lucretia and the circumstances surrounding the fall of the Tarquin dynasty became a powerful symbol in Roman society - representing the triumph of liberty over tyranny, and the importance of personal virtue in maintaining a just and stable government.
As a side note, the ancient sources, including Roman historians and writers, often emphasized the lineage of Marcus Brutus, drawing connections to Lucius Junius Brutus to underscore the weight of his decision to assassinate Caesar some 450 or so years later. The implication is that Marcus Brutus was upholding a family tradition of defending the Roman Republic against tyranny, just as his ancestor had done.
Fall of the Monarchy and Establishment of the Republic
Tarquin behaved like an autocrat and was not interested in consulting the senators, who obviously felt ignored. Tarquinius' cognomen of "Superbus" translates as "the haughty one" or "the proud".
Tarquin's grasp on power weakened as he made many enemies among the Roman nobility, particularly disenfranchising the senators. He relied heavily on his alliance with Octavius Mamilius, a powerful Latin ruler, to maintain control over the city.
The brutal act committed by his son is one reason given as the catalyst for change, as the Roman people finally had enough of the Tarquin dynasty. The actual reason for the fall of the monarchy was probably a power struggle between the king and the leading aristocratic families.
Tarquin attempted to curb the rising power of the aristocrats by packing the Senate with 200 of his supporters, increasing the total membership to 300 men. These were known as the conscripti or 'the enrolled ones', and this word became part of the official title of the Senate, the Patres Conscripti or 'Conscript Fathers'.
As mentioned, upon successfully overthrowing the king, the leaders of the rebellion, Brutus and Collatinus, were elected as the first consuls of the newly established Roman Republic. In this new system, the power once held by the king was divided among two consuls, who were elected by the people and the Senate for a one-year term. Senators, who held most of the ruling power, were chosen from the Roman aristocracy.
Under the Roman Republic, key principles such as checks and balances, separation of powers, and democratic representation became the cornerstones of Roman governance. The Republic went on to become a significant force in the ancient Mediterranean world, and the legacy of its political structure continues to influence modern political systems.
Tarquin's Attempts to Regain Power
After being stripped of his crown and expelled from the city in 509 BC, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus made various attempts to regain his throne. He initially sought the support of the Etruscan cities, where he had strong familial ties. Subsequently, he rallied the Latins, a neighboring group of tribes that shared a common language and culture with the Romans.
Tarquin's first major attempt to reclaim power took place at the Battle of Silva Arsia in 509 BC. Here, the ousted king joined forces with the Latin League, an alliance of Latin tribes, and attacked the newly-formed Roman Republic.
The battle took place in the forest of Silva Arsia, where the combined forces of the former king and the Latins tried to achieve a decisive victory over the Romans. However, the Roman army held their ground and managed to repel the attack.
During the Battle of Silva Arsia, both sides witnessed fierce fighting and significant losses. One notable event in the battle was the confrontation between Arruns, the son of Tarquin the Proud, and his cousin, Lucius Junius Brutus. In a tragic twist of fate, both warriors engaged in a deadly duel that resulted in their mutual deaths.
According to legend, during the course of the battle, Arruns recognized Brutus because of the conspicuous items he wore, indicating his status as a consul. They charged at each other and, in the resulting duel, both were killed.
Following this setback, Tarquin continued to attempt to regain his throne with the help of foreign powers. He approached the city of Clusium and requested their support against Rome. The Clusians, led by their king, Lars Porsena, agreed and laid siege to Rome in 507 BC.
This assault marked the beginning of the Capitoline siege, an important event in Roman history. Although Porsena's forces failed to take the city, their presence heightened Rome's vulnerability and demonstrated the fragility of the fledgling Republic.
Despite his best efforts, Tarquin could not regain his throne, and he spent the remaining years of his life in exile. His attempts to reinstate himself as king of Rome resulted in a series of military confrontations and alliances, but ultimately solidified the Roman Republic as a dominant force in the region, while ending the era of Etruscan rule in Rome for good.
Tarquin in Literature and Legend
Ancient accounts by authors such as Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus mention his tyrannical reign and the subsequent establishment of the Roman Republic. As the last monarch of Rome, Tarquin is a central figure in both historical and legendary narratives.
Although the names, dates and events of the regal period are considered as belonging to the realm of fiction and myth rather than to that of factual history, certain facts seem well attested: the existence of an early rule by kings; the growth of the city and its struggles with neighboring peoples; the conquest of Rome by Etruria and the establishment of a dynasty of Etruscan princes, symbolized by the rule of the Tarquins; the overthrow of this control; and the abolition of the kingship.
We've already seen how Tarquin's ascent to power is steeped in drama and intrigue. Ancient historians provide a wealth of information about his character and rule: for instance, according to Livy's Ab Urbe Condita (History of Rome), Tarquin resorted to treachery and murder to become king, eventually usurping his predecessor. As a ruler, he acted with little regard for the Roman Senate, enforcing his will through violence and cruelty. His leadership saw Rome expand its territories, but also provoked unrest and dissent among the people.
Despite the dominating presence of Tarquin's narrative in Roman history, the accuracy of these ancient accounts has been a subject of debate among historians. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, writing centuries after the events in question, offers a more sympathetic portrayal of Tarquin's rule, arguing that his reign might have been less tyrannical than portrayed in Livy's work. This has led contemporary scholars to question whether the figure of Tarquin the Proud was merely a fabrication, or indeed a reflection of a genuine historical figure.
Shadows of Tarquin in the Roman Empire
Regardless of these debates, the story of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus continues to captivate readers and serve as a cautionary tale in both literature and legend. The lessons of his rise and fall have endured throughout the centuries, illustrating the dangers of absolute power and the importance of holding rulers accountable for their actions.
Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, with his autocratic reign and disdain for senatorial authority, stands as a potent archetype in Rome's vast historical tapestry. While the Roman Republic rose from the ashes of his tyranny, the specter of Tarquin's rule would not be easily forgotten.
Ironically, as the centuries unfolded, many Roman emperors seemed to echo the very despotism that the early Romans had sought to expel. From the likes of Nero to Domitian, and even in the more absolute phases of rulers like Augustus, the imperial trend towards centralized power and disregard for senatorial checks often mirrored the tendencies of Rome's last king.
In examining Tarquin's legacy, one cannot help but ponder the cyclical nature of power and ambition in Rome: a republic birthed in resistance to monarchy, only to see shades of its old nemesis re-emerge in the trappings of imperial purple.
It serves as a compelling reminder that the allure of unchecked authority is a recurrent theme, resonating across the ages and the annals of Roman history, and beyond.
