Women in Ancient Rome
As most people know, women have been relegated to their own secondary social class in most societies over the course of human history.
Despite this status making them de facto slaves of males in some of the most oppressive and basic societies, women were able to hold social stations of varying importance in the more advanced civilizations of the world, such as ancient Rome.
While elevation of women to some minor degree of socio-political independence and acknowledgement is seen as a mark of high culture in places like Rome, it could just as easily be argued that these types of civilizations clung to the practice of gender-based discrimination long after they had grown beyond any pragmatic reason for that kind of division.
Women Under Roman Law
Roman laws regarding women’s legal standing changed over the course of ancient Rome’s existence, but freeborn women have been considered legal Roman citizens since the days of the Early Roman Republic in the 5th century BC. This meant that women were able to own land, represent themselves in legal matters, and sign official documents.
Furthermore, in matters of inheritance and estate, women were equally considered alongside any male heir unless the will specified otherwise.
This was a level of legal rights that was almost never granted to women in the ancient world.
Despite these somewhat enlightened policies, women in ancient Rome were still firmly second-class citizens. They could not vote in elections or hold publicly elected offices in government. In fact, every woman in Roman society was politically and legally subordinate to a close male relative called a pater familias, or head of household, who held official authority over them.
This position would be held first by a girl’s father (or older brother or uncle in the event of the father’s death) and would be transferred to her husband after she was married. All women in Rome had their social classes determined by the social class of their pater familias.
This arrangement was due in large part to assertive actions on the part of those in the male-dominated power structure, who believed women were suitable only for elegance and finery and had no place in the political sphere.
Despite these significant restrictions, it was still possible for Roman women of high social standing to have an impact on public policy and military matters. If a woman happened to be the daughter or wife of an influential official or general, then that male relative may be willing to listen to their counsel and opinions.
There are a few select examples of women in Rome attaining a very high level of real political power by way of this method. However, this role was still dependent on having that type of male relative and was not legally recognized in any way. Furthermore, it was only a very small number of Roman women who were a part of elite families and could express this type of pseudo-authority.
One societal role that was reserved exclusively for women was that of the Vestal Virgins. These women were priestesses of Vesta, the Roman goddess of the hearth, and took 30 year vows of celibacy that freed them from the child-bearing obligations that Roman women would normally have.
The Vestal Virgins were responsible for studying religion and the dogma of Roman politics to ensure that all rituals were performed properly; topics that were off-limits to the male college of priests. The Vestal Virgins were highly important in Roman society, and their existence was seen as fundamental to Rome’s longevity and security (it was believed that if the sacred flame went out then Rome would suffer misfortune).
Childhood & Education
A young woman in ancient Rome would have a very different childhood than her male counterparts.
In their earliest years, children of both genders played with toys and dolls that were similar to modern ones. From there, each would enter some form of school, but boys would learn about rhetoric and history, while women learned skills that were more suited to their expected existence working in the home. Since Roman girls were often married as young as age 12, this schooling was also considerably shorter than a boy’s.
As with many aspects of Roman society, those in the higher social classes had a different experience, and girls from wealthy families could be privately tutored in many different subjects even after they were married and had children.
For more information about Roman Education, please click here.
There were also plenty of ways in which boys and girls were treated equally. There was no general misogynistic preference for sons as existed in many ancient societies, save perhaps for emperors who desired a son to inherit the imperial title. Any family would be just as proud to present their daughters to visitors and at events as they would be their sons.
Young women were also expected to learn and work hard in order to excel in their expected roles as managers of domestic affairs. Rather than being cast aside or relegated to this position as inferior, women were seen as respected members of society who fulfilled a set of highly important functions.
Sex & Marriage
Like many civilizations throughout the history of the world, ancient Roman society was very concerned with a woman’s virginity and general sexuality. The virginity of young women was especially protected, and sexual relationships prior to official marriage were heavily discouraged.
This emphasis on virginity ran so deep in ancient Rome that it was not unheard of for a young woman to be executed for engaging in sexual relations before marriage.
This extreme stance was even reflected in their religion with the existence of Pudicitia - the Roman goddess of feminine purity - who could only be worshiped by virginal women, and the ecclesiastical order of the Vestal Virgins, whose non-sexual status was thought to give them special insight into religious traditions.
Marriages between men and women were a fundamental institution in Roman society. One way marriage was performed was called coemptio, which was essentially a business transaction, where a father sold his daughter into marriage.
However, there was also a much more modern form of marriage called confarreatio, which involved a ceremony in front of witnesses and was quite similar to marriage in our own present-day culture. It was mostly used by the social elite and even included the Roman equivalent of a wedding cake.
On the other hand, many common plebeians were married by way of a union called usus, which was a relatively informal agreement between a man and woman to cohabitate and raise children together.
Finally, there was an official form of pseudo-marriage called concubinage, where a woman would live with a man and be his sexual partner, but was technically not his wife. This was usually done when the woman was of a lower social class than the man, making legal marriage an impossibility. That being said, there was no particular stigma associated with a woman becoming a concubine, or for a man living with one.
Regardless of the type of marriage, all reputable women were expected to begin their sexual lives on the night of their wedding in their husband’s bedroom. Furthermore, wives were expected to engage in sexual activity with no one other than their husbands, while men were free to have extramarital sex with multiple women, provided that those women were prostitutes or slaves.
This focus on a woman’s marital fidelity often bordered on obsession, with many prominent Roman men assigning minders to their wives to prevent potential clandestine encounters with other men. Julius Caesar himself famously divorced his second wife, Pompeia, at the mere suspicion that she may be capable of adultery.
When it came to divorce, ancient Rome had relatively progressive public policies. Women and men were both free to request a divorce, and it was often an informal matter without significant shame attached to it.
One very common motive for divorce was adultery. Women were treated quite harshly in the event of infidelity, even facing banishment from Rome under the rule of Augustus during early Imperial Rome. Meanwhile, men were only guilty of adultery under Roman law if their sexual partner was either married to another Roman citizen, or was the unmarried daughter of one.
Following a divorce, remarriage was fairly common, particularly among the political and economic elite, who often married for pragmatic reasons rather than love.
Daily Life
Traditionally speaking, a woman’s role was to maintain the domestic realm of the household. For members of the lower social classes, this consisted primarily in making clothing for the rest of the family. In fact, the ability for a household to combine all of its labor to raise sheep and use their wool to make clothing was a significant mark of self-sufficiency in ancient Roman culture.
In wealthy and powerful Roman families, this female role as head of domestic affairs could become incredibly complicated. These families often owned multiple households or estates, each with its own incomes, staff of servants, and important logistical considerations.
These duties were comparable to those of running a corporation. In some cases, powerful women were able to wield this influence in order to secure properties or incomes for their husbands that would have otherwise been lost.
One unique aspect of Roman marriage was that money and property were not automatically shared between spouses. Instead, each member of the marriage maintained their own assets. This meant that women often had their own money to launch or invest in business ventures, which they often did.
There are many instances of Roman women owning businesses like brickworks and metalsmiths. The access women had to these industries was aided by the fact that Roman society considered many jobs of industry to be beneath the wealthiest and most socially elevated of Rome’s citizens, keeping them out of those fields entirely.
Even those women who did not have enough wealth to fund their own businesses often helped with their husband's; both in administrative roles and performing some of the work themselves. Another common job for women in ancient Rome was as wet nurses or midwives for other women.
Women also worked as actresses, dancers, and prostitutes, but each of those occupations was associated with a permanent downgrade to the woman’s social status.
Roman women were generally expected to become mothers after they were married. Women who were unmarried or could not have children were prohibited from inheriting property by traditional means, except when they were specifically named in someone’s will.
As part of their roles as managing the domestic sphere, many Roman women were their child’s primary caregivers, although there is evidence that fathers sometimes shared in these responsibilities.
That being said, women who were more affluent and could afford to hire wet nurses and servants to shoulder child rearing duties often did so in order to free themselves up to pursue social or business ambitions. There was no stigma attached to this, and it was a common practice among Rome’s elite families.
Prostitution & Slavery
Despite ancient Rome’s predilection towards female chastity and perceived feminine purity, prostitution was incredibly prolific in Rome and its territories. Any woman who chose to become a prostitute to support herself financially was free to do so. This was most common among women who were freed slaves, highly impoverished, or who no longer had a pater familias to be responsible for them, but there were also cases of high class women engaging in prostitution.
During the Imperial Roman era, women who were guilty of crimes could be forced into prostitution as a form of punishment, although this practice eventually ceased in 389 AD when it was outlawed.
Regardless of who the woman was or how she ended up as a prostitute, engaging in the practice would create a permanent demotion in her social class. Women who had previously engaged in prostitution were barred from certain social institutions and prohibited from legally marrying most Roman men who did not have similarly marred reputations, instead being relegated to concubinage.
One aspect of ancient Rome that is often overlooked is the prevalence of slavery in their society. As Rome conquered more and more of the Mediterranean world (see our Roman Empire Map to see just how much!), non-combatants living in defeated kingdoms were rounded up and enslaved wholesale. The overwhelming majority of these enslaved captives were women, who became ubiquitous in the city of Rome.
Since slaves had no legal rights and were treated like any other item of property, they were frequently forced into prostitution. However, a slave owner could place a ne serva clause onto the slave’s ownership terms, which would immediately emancipate the slave if they were ever forced into prostitution.
While rape was a crime in ancient Rome, the law did not apply to slaves. It was only illegal to assault an enslaved person if the slave was seriously injured, because that would amount to property damage.
Prominent Roman Women
Lucretia
Lucretia is a semi-mythological noblewoman who lived during the last years of the Roman Kingdom under its final king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus.
According to legend the king’s son, Sextus, raped Lucretia, which was an extreme example of how the royal family has been abusing its power. Lucretia went to her family and powerful friends and told them what had happened to her, causing them to bring about a popular uprising that overthrew the monarchy and established the Roman Republic in 509 BC.
Cornelia
Cornelia was born during the Late Roman Republic to a prominent Roman general named Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus. She married a member of the Roman aristocracy and became highly educated in literature, writing, mathematics, and politics.
She tutored her sons Tiberius and Gaius; the famous Gracchi brothers. These brothers each served in the important office of Tribune of the Plebs and both advocated for radical popular reforms.
Cornelia counseled them throughout their political careers, and there is evidence that she influenced their shared ideology.
Aurelia
Aurelia was the mother of the legendary Roman general and dictator, Gaius Julius Caesar.
Already a member of an elite aristocratic family herself, Aurelia raised Caesar and fostered his ambitions for greatness. When he faced a trial for defying an order, Aurelia was one of the people who successfully testified on his behalf at the hearings.
She was a member of Caesar’s court throughout his reign, helping her son keep control of power by alerting him to potential betrayals.
Fulvia
Fulvia was right at the center of the highly dramatic whirlwind of events that led to the assassination of Julius Caesar and death of the Roman Republic.
Fulvia attained an impressive level of wealth and political influence by marrying and being widowed by a series of powerful Roman men, eventually marrying the general Mark Antony.
Antony took power after Caesar was killed, but left in pursuit of his assassins, leaving Fulvia the de facto ruler of Rome. She marshaled eight legions to support her, but Antony was famously taken in by Cleopatra, and Fulvia’s forces were defeated by Octavian, the future Emperor Augustus of Rome.
Livia Drusilla
Livia Drusilla was a Roman empress and the wife of Emperor Augustus, as well as the mother of Emperor Tiberius.
Livia was known for her influential role in the Roman Empire, counseling Augustus on affairs of state and working to secure the imperial succession for her son, Tiberius. She was also reputed to have caused the deaths of many of her son's rivals, including Marcus Claudius Marcellus.
Livia has been both demonized as a murderous villainess and held up as an example of womanly virtue and simplicity. She was a long-lived and powerful figure in the early years of the Roman Principate.
Aggripina the Elder
Agrippina the Elder was born to a high class Roman family during the early Imperial era under Emperor Augustus. She would marry a general named Germanicus and travel with him, along with her children, on his military campaigns in a significant break from Roman tradition. She is even credited with helping to prevent a mutiny in the Roman province of Gaul.
After Germanicus’ death, she was boldly outspoken in her belief that her husband was secretly assassinated.
Her son Gaius would later become the emperor Caligula, whom Aggripina counseled until both were exiled from Rome in 29 AD.
Aggripina the Younger
Julia Aggripina, often called Aggripina the Younger, was the daughter of Aggripina the Elder. She was Empress of Rome by virtue of being married to the emperor Claudius. After his death, she would use her political connections to place her son-in-law, Nero, on the throne.
During Nero’s reign, Aggripina used her significant influence to control matters of the Roman state like few women ever had. She was killed in 59 AD, though it is impossible to know exactly how or by whom, given the many conflicting and clearly biased accounts from the time.
Velaria Messalina
Velaria Messalina was the third wife of the Emperor Claudius, a man thirty years her elder. According to rumors, she would seduce many men in the Roman court, and form a powerful political faction that would murder her rivals with the tacit consent of the emperor, whom she had wrapped around her finger.
Velaria became incredibly influential and was on her way to securing succession for her son, Britannicus. However, her ambition got the better of her when she was discovered to be plotting with one of her lovers, Gaius Silius, to kill Emperor Claudius, leading to him having them both executed in 48 AD.
Helena
Helena was the wife of the Roman Emperor Constantius during the Late Imperial era. In 326 AD, she would convert to Christianity and travel to the Holy Land in modern day Israel, which was under Roman control at the time. She had churches built in Bethlehem and Jerusalem and brought many relics back to Rome.
Her son, the Emperor Constantine, would also convert to Christianity and famously make it the official religion of the Empire.
Helena was canonized by the Catholic Church after her death for her achievements on behalf of Christianity.
Julia Mamaea
Julia Mamaea was born into a very powerful Roman family. Her cousin was the emperor Caracalla, and later, her nephew was emperor Elagabalus, which made her and her family a common sight in the Roman court.
When Elagabalus was assassinated, her son Severus was chosen to succeed him, due largely in part to the political support Mamaea had cultivated. While Severus ruled, Mamaea had such a profound influence on Roman affairs that his enemies found it easy to criticize him for being her puppet.
Eventually, members of the military became frustrated with Severus’ lack of leadership and killed both him and Mamaea in 235 AD.
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